LOCAL think tank Caribbean Policy Research Institute (CaPRI) says its latest study has debunked reports by law enforcement agencies and media which have increasingly suggested that women play active roles in organised criminal groups.

According to CaPRI in a study, titled Hits and Misses: Women in Organized Violence, released on Tuesday, “arrest and incarceration data do not support claims of rising female participation in violent crime”.

“Women remain a small minority in Jamaica’s criminal landscape, with arrests and incarcerations primarily for non-violent offences such as drug trafficking, fraud, and money laundering. Female arrests for violent crimes, including murder and shooting, are rare and typically involve domestic or interpersonal conflicts rather than gang-related violence,” CaPRI said in the study.

According to the think tank, the majority of the crimes women commit are non-violent, or category two crimes, such as fraud, drug trafficking, burglary, and public order offences which do not involve a threat of harm or an actual attack upon a victim.

“As a snapshot, in 2021 in Jamaica, 15,277 people in total were arrested (men and women). Category one crimes, violent crimes such as murder, shooting, rape, aggravated assault, and larceny, which includes extortion, accounted for 16 per cent of those arrests. Of those 2,469 persons, 97 per cent were male,” CaPRI reported.

It said prison admissions in 2021 tell the same story with women making up “a negligible share of prison admissions for all crimes”.

“Women made up only 3.3 per cent of all admissions to correctional facilities in 2021, showing their small presence in Jamaica’s prison population. Men accounted for the vast majority of offenders across all crime categories, with particularly wide gaps in violent crimes. While 51 men were admitted for murder or manslaughter, only five women faced similar charges. No women were incarcerated for sexual offences, assault, burglary, or shooting with intent, which is consistent with arrest data showing that women are rarely charged with direct acts of violence,” CaPRI said.

It however noted that “women’s admissions were highest in breaches of the Dangerous Drugs Act (four women), forgery and fraud-related offences (three women), and illegal possession of firearms (three women)”.

According to CaPRI, these offences “suggest roles related to facilitation rather than direct involvement in violent crime”.

“The data aligns with broader research findings that indicate women’s criminal activity is more often linked to financial crimes, low-level drug offences, and supporting roles in organised crime rather than direct acts of violence,” the think tank said.

In the meantime CaPRI, in its finding, said women provide logistical support, such as hiding weapons, transporting contraband, or managing finances for criminal networks.

“They handle money laundering, extortion proceeds, and other financial transactions for criminal organisations. Some gather intelligence, infiltrating rival groups or monitoring law enforcement. Women often act as couriers, using their perceived lower risk of police scrutiny to transport drugs, weapons, and cash,” the researchers said.

According to CAPRI while rare, some women hold leadership positions, coordinating gang activities and making strategic decisions.

“Although these roles demonstrate women’s agency within organised crime, their participation remains largely facilitatory rather than as direct enforcers of violence,” it said while pointing to examples such as Stephanie “Mumma” Christie, a high-ranking member of the Klansman-One Don Gang now serving prison time.

Christie managed the gang’s financial operations and secured legal representation for members.

The report also pointed to Sudeen “Pinky” Hylton, who is described as Jamaica’s first “gunwoman,” who did not fire a weapon but “played an instrumental role in orchestrating murders”.

“Kenisha Moodie’s involvement with the King’s Valley Gang highlights how romantic relationships with gang leaders can serve as pathways into organised crime. Sheryl McCallum and Tishell Bernard, alleged members of the Only the Family (OTF) gang, were arrested for stockpiling firearms and ammunition, reflecting the increasing presence of women in operational roles. These cases show that while women in organised crime may not be the shottas, they play key roles in sustaining criminal networks,” CaPRI said further.

In concluding that the involvement of women in organised crime is influenced by structural conditions, economic realities, and social networks, CaPRI said there was a need for policy approaches that address the underlying conditions.

The think tank, in its recommendations, called for a reframing of gender narratives in crime prevention.

“Crime prevention strategies should acknowledge the active roles women play in criminal networks. Gender-responsive approaches should be integrated into crime prevention and intervention efforts,” CaPRI said while also pointing to the need for structural community transformation — to involve “regularising land tenure and improving governance in informal settlements”.

This, it said, will “weaken the systemic conditions that sustain gangs while creating opportunities for economic empowerment. Prioritising women’s inclusion in these processes will reduce their economic dependence and vulnerability to gang influence, fostering safer and more resilient communities,” CaPRI said.