In a brief review of the historical literature one is appalled by the absence of serious attention given to ethnic groups in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) programme by a growing body of western historians. One of the critical questions generated by Western culture is: How does one overcome the adversities invoked by racial animus and not allow it to unduly influence your destiny?

For Africans in the diaspora, this question is quickly elevated to a much higher level since they are the minority group most adversely impacted by the virus of racism. Another useful follow-up question for Africans in the diaspora is: What drives you to remain focused and motivated in an environment that does not recognise or value your contributions?

I will cite a few examples of the resilience and grit of a few extraordinary individuals who have overcome adversities to make significant contributions to the ongoing advancement of space exploration. In 1962 four African American women — Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan, Mary W Jackson and Christine Darden — used complex manual mathematical calculations that were critical to the success of John Glenn’s first orbit of the Earth three times in his Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7, and in 1969 they performed calculations for the Apollo 11 mission to the moon.

It is instructive to note that this was happening at a time when laws still enforced racial segregation in the United States of America, and these women had to use separate restrooms and eating facilities set aside for non-white staff.

Johnson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015 by US President Barack Obama. She died on February 24, 2020 at a retirement home in Newport at age 101. Vaughan and Jackson have also passed, Darden is still alive as of early 2026.

Another pioneer in the NASA programme was Major Frederick D Gregory, the first African American astronaut in the history of space flight. He was a research test pilot for the US Air Force. He has flown more than 40 different aircraft, ranging from helicopters to fighter jets, and has been involved with aircraft and simulation evaluation and testing for the Airforce and NASA for more than seven years. He was a graduate of the US Naval Test Pilot School and holds BSc and MSA degrees.

Major Gregory was loaned to NASA to fly research missions. One of the missions was the ground-based microwave landing system. He field tested it and sold it to the Airport Association. This system is currently used worldwide in 747s and jumbo jets. He also redesigned cockpits for aircraft and has several patents on file of cockpit redesigns, he had major responsibilities for the cockpit redesign aboard the Space Shuttle.

The flight of the Discovery on November 22, 1989 was the first shuttle under the command of an African American astronaut — Major Gregory. He would again command a mission in 1991. The retired NASA astronaut, pilot, and former acting administrator at NASA celebrated his 85th birthday on January 7, 2026.

Among the crew on the Endeavour, launched on September 12, 1992, was mission specialist Mae C Jemison, the first African American woman in space. This flight was in collaboration with Japan and was a seven-day endeavour, the purpose of which was to study the varied effects of zero gravity on human and animals.

During the flight she conducted experiments on weightlessness and motion sickness on the crew members. Jemison resigned from NASA in 1993 to teach at Dartmouth College. She also conducted the first International Space Camp in 1994. She earned a BSc in Chemical Engineering and a BA in African and Afro-American Studies in 1977 at Stanford University and then received an MD degree from Cornell University in 1981.

As we anxiously await the expected launch in March 2026 of Artemis 11, the first crew mission to the moon in over 50 years, another African American NASA astronaut, Victor J Glover, has been assigned to pilot this historic mission with three other crew members. Glover earned a BSc in General Engineering, an MSc in Flight Test Engineering, an MSc in Systems Engineering, and a Master of Military Operational Art and Science. We wish him and his crew members a safe 10-day flight to and from the moon. We also look forward to Artemis 111, which is expected to land the first woman and the first Afro-descendant person on the moon in the near future.

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