WHILE over a third of females experienced at least one of three forms of intimate partner violence (IPV) in their lifetime, some while they were pregnant or within the 12 months preceding the ‘2021 Reproductive Health Survey, Jamaica’, the data is also showing that females were perpetrators of violence too.

Ever-partnered females were asked if they may have perpetrated any form of IPV (verbal, physical, or sexual) against a former or current partner in their lifetime and recently (last 12 months). The data showed that 45.1 per cent of ever-partnered females admitted to being abusive towards a current or former partner, usually verbal abuse (40.1 per cent), while 20.1 per cent committed either physical or sexual abuse, most of which was physical in nature (19.5 per cent). Ever-partnered means having had sex, been married, or been in a romantic relationship.

IPV was more often resorted to by younger females, those in common-law unions, those with lower than secondary education, and those who had witnessed or experienced parental physical abuse before age 15. When asked about recent IPV offences, 24.2 per cent of ever-partnered females had committed an offence in the past 12 months. While most altercations were verbal in nature (22.2 per cent), some (9.1 per cent) had resorted to physical violence.

Meanwhile, two of five ever-partnered males admitted to being perpetrators of IPV in their lifetime. Among the reasons for physical violence, jealousy and financial problems were the two most common justifications given. Jealousy was the most frequent reason for physical violence (35.3 per cent); ‘when family has financial problems’ (18.1 per cent); ‘when partner disobeys’ (14.9 per cent); ‘problems within his or partner’s family’ (13.8 per cent); and ‘when partner complains’ (12.8 per cent). One in 10 mentioned that they had no particular reason why they were physically violent with their partner.

Of note, cases of IPV were more often committed by males residing in the Kingston Metropolitan Area (49.0 per cent) and in common-law unions (45.1 per cent) than those who were married (35.5 per cent) or in visiting relationships (37.5 per cent). IPV was more frequently resorted to by males 25-34 years (43.6 per cent); who were fathers (43.2 per cent;) and in the higher wealth quintiles (44.1 per cent). Acts of IPV were more often perpetrated by males who had witnessed (52.5 per cent) or experienced (46.3 per cent) physical parental abuse than those who had not (35.8 per cent and 26.8 per cent, respectively).

Meanwhile, the survey, under the section ‘Gender Attitudes and Intimate Partner Violence’, also showed that several females who experienced intimate partner violence had also suffered forced sex.

Sexually experienced females were asked if they had ever been forced to have sexual intercourse (with penetration) against their will at any time in their life. If so, they were asked at what age this first occurred and their relationship with the perpetrator. One in 10 sexually experienced females (10.4 per cent) had been raped in their lifetime, with the first incident occurring, on average, at 16.7 years. At least three of four respondents (75.6 per cent) knew the perpetrator and identified him as either a husband/ex-partner or family member (30.9 per cent); neighbour, friend, or casual acquaintance (27.9 per cent); while 16.8 per cent were identified as a boyfriend or ex-boyfriend. The other one in four reported the assailant as a stranger (16.2 per cent); unidentified person (6.3 per cent); or were unable to say/refused (1.8 per cent).

“Studies have highlighted the psychological, emotional, and physical trauma females endure due to abuse, with many victims entrapped by their socio-economic vulnerability into a cycle of both experience with and perpetration of intimate partner violence,” the authors noted.

Ever-partnered females were asked to identify the exact acts of violence which had been inflicted on them by their partners in their lifetime. One-third of ever-partnered females (33.1 per cent) had been verbally insulted, while 11.6 per cent were verbally threatened. The most common acts of physical violence included being ‘slapped’ (12.6 per cent), ‘hit with a fist’ (11.4 per cent), and being ‘pushed’ (10.5 per cent). Less frequently reported were being ‘kicked/dragged’ (7.6 per cent); ‘threatened with a weapon’ (4.1 per cent); or ‘choked’ (2.8 per cent). In total 156 women reported injuries — 62.4 per cent sustained physical injuries from the incident, and 21.1 per cent required medical treatment.

The data showed that many females struggled with or refused to disclose their experience of abuse to other people, probably out of fear, but also due to limited options for extricating themselves from the circumstances. The data, however, shows that some women were able to move away from their abusive environment.

“It is clear that services are needed to support victims but also rehabilitate perpetrators of intimate partner violence to enable behaviour change,” the authors noted.

The household survey was conducted by Statistical Institute of Jamaica on behalf of the National Family Planning Board. It covers fertility; contraceptive use; knowledge, attitude and practice; reproductive health; maternal and newborn care; infant and child mortality; sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS; gender-based violence; and the reproductive health of respondents 15-49 years. The data also generated indicators on Jamaica’s progress towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3 on good health and well-being, including SDG 3.7.1 on contraceptive use and estimates for SDG 5 on gender equality. The information gleaned is used in determining programme implementation and other vital issues specific to how the country deals with matters relating to reproductive health. There were 5,008 participants – 3,224 females and 1,784 males.